1–35. An advance on Armenia from one side was often interpreted as pretext to war. However, Pacorus returned in 38 BCE for another invasion. He understood that Pompey’s fame in generalship was enormous and something that he lacked. The wars between Rome and the Parthian Empire, which took place roughly from 53 BC to 217 AD, were a unique episode in classical history. Although the Roman general Sulla did not treat the Parthian envoy with respect, a treaty that definited the border as the Euphrates River was ratified by both parties. [34], The campaign was carefully planned in advance: ten legions were concentrated in the Eastern theater; since 111, the correspondence of Pliny the Younger witnesses to the fact that provincial authorities in Bithynia had to organize supplies for passing troops, and local city councils and their individual members had to shoulder part of the increased expenses by supplying troops themselves. Roman military operations in the east first made diplomatic contact with the Parthians in 96 BCE. Coming off the flat steppe region of central Asia, more than one ancient author mentions Parthian cavalry as essential to their military machine. Charax Spasinu, also called Charax Spasinou, Charax Pasinu, Spasinu Charax, Alexandria or Antiochia in Susiana, was an ancient port at the head of the Persian Gulf, and the capital of the ancient kingdom of Characene. The wars were ended by the Arab Muslim Conquests, which led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire, shortly after the end of the last war between them. The Parthians fell back. Major uprisings by ethnic Judeans in Cyrenaica, Cyprus and Egypt spiraled out of control, resulting in a widespread slaughter of left-behind Roman garrisons and Roman citizens by Jewish rebels. It was a bad decision with far reaching consequences. In May of 101, Trajan launched his first campaign into the Dacian kingdom, crossing to the northern bank of the Danube and defeating the Dacian army at Tapae (see Second Battle of Tapae), near the Iron … Traditionally, the emperors of Rome had reserved the right to choose the kings of Armenia. However, powerful alliances entail great dangers. Roman-Parthian relations dominated international policy in the classical near east. [11], That Charax traded with the Roman Empire, there can be no doubt, as its actual connections with merchants from Palmyra during the period are well documented in a contemporary Palmyrene epigraph, which tells of various Palmyrene citizens honoured for holding office in Charax. In 224, the Parthian King was killed in battle by Ardashir, who revolted against his overlord. The following year, Trajan invaded Mesopotamia and met little resistance from only Meharaspes of Adiabene, since Osroes was engaged in a civil war to the east with Vologases III of Parthia. However, in 116 CE, Abgar also supported a Parthian revolt against Trajan. Thus, the Roman-Parthian wars offer us a view of the complex international politics in the ancient world. After skirmishes on the outskirts of the city, the two armies met in battle. Macrinus succeeded Caracalla and renewed the campaign against Parthia. Ventidius had humble beginnings. The legion's emblem was a thunderbolt. Following the campaign of his subordinate, Marc Antony decided to take matters into his own hands. [36], Trajan marched first on Armenia, deposed the Parthian-appointed king (who was afterwards murdered while kept in the custody of Roman troops in an unclear incident, later described by Fronto as a breach of Roman good faith [37] ) and annexed it to the Roman Empire as a province, receiving in passing the acknowledgement of Roman hegemony by various tribes in the Caucasus and on the Eastern coast of the Black Sea – a process that kept him busy until the end of 114. Although the Parthians fielded impressive cavalry, they lacked the manpower that Rome could field. Once again, Ventidius charged his men downhill. Labienus regrouped with Pacorus and the armies met somewhere at the Taurus Mountains. The current king of Armenia, Exedares, had been crowned by the Parthian king, Osroes, and had sworn loyalty to Parthia. Trajan was presented with an excuse to go to war with the Parthians. [43] While Trajan moved from west to east, Lusius Quietus moved with his army from the Caspian Sea towards the west, both armies performing a successful pincer movement, [44] whose apparent result was to establish a Roman presence into the Parthian Empire proper, with Trajan taking the northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Batnae and organizing a province of Mesopotamia, including the Kingdom of Osrhoene  – where King Abgaros VII submitted to Trajan publicly [45]  – as a Roman protectorate. However, he did not success in establishing his line on the throne, and various Arsacid members of different lineages ruled until the accession of Vologases II, who succeeded in establishing his own line on the Armenian throne, which would rule the country until it was abolished by the Sasanian Empire in 428. In the political history of the classical near east, Rome and Parthia were the dominant players. Roman-Parthian became increasingly centered on Armenia, which was located in the middle between Parthian and the Roman Empire. No contemporary account of Trajan's Parthian War survives, nor were any monuments set up to commemorate his exploits in the East in the same way that Trajan's Column in Rome and the trophy at Tropaeum Traiani (Adamclisi) do his Dacian Wars. Trajan planned to embark on another campaign, but was struck by illness. [76] Quietus discharged his commission successfully, so much that the war was afterward named after him – Kitus being a corruption of Quietus. The region, including the crucial of Nisibis, was conquered and Septimius was granted the title Parthicus by the Senate. When Roman and Parthian borders finally met, the centuries that followed were a time of diplomacy and war between two empires of distinct cultures and methods of war. [31] One can explain the campaign by the fact that, for the Romans, their empire was in principle unlimited, and that Trajan only took advantage of an opportunity to make idea and reality coincide. To the west, the Sassanids waged war against their rivals, the Romans. In 113 AD Trajan turned his sights to Parthia (now north-eastern Iran), with which Rome had had previous conflicts, mainly over the control of Armenia. A Long, Long Way. The emperor withdrew his men from southern Mesopotamia to consolidate his gains in the north. Parthian enterprise in the West began in the time of Mithridates I; during his reign, the Arsacids succeeded in extending their rule into Armenia and Mesopotamia. In Roman history, Parthia’s legacy is its role as the great rival of the east. "; Sicker (2000), 167–168. Crassus was a man who worked his way up to the top through “conventional” means of politics. In the summer of 217 near the city of Nisibis, Macrinus was defeated by the Parthian army and was forced to make embarrassing concessions to the Parthians. In certain occasion, warfare had a direct impact on cultural development. Parthian forces attacked key Roman positions, while Roman garrisons at Seleucia, Nisibis and Edessa were evicted by the local populaces. Nisibis was recaptured and Edessa was sacked. Ventidius immediately attacked Labienus’ army, which withdrew to his Parthian ally. In 191, Septimius was assigned general of the Legions of Pannonia, southwest of modern Hungary. [38] At the same time, a Roman column under the legate Lusius Quietus  – an outstanding cavalry general [39] who had signaled himself during the Dacian Wars by commanding a unit from his native Mauretania [40]  – crossed the Araxes river from Armenia into Media Atropatene and the land of the Mardians (present-day Ghilan). [23] [24] In the absence of conclusive evidence, trade between Rome and India might have been far more balanced, in terms of quantities of precious metals exchanged: one of our sources for the notion of the Roman gold drain – Pliny's the Younger's uncle Pliny the Elder  – had earlier described the Gangetic Plains as one of the gold sources for the Roman Empire. Rather was the headquarters of the Roman government where Trajan was. After 110, the Parthian king Osroes I was forced to dethrone an Armenian leader, and the Roman emperor Trajandecided to invade Parthia. [69], Shortly afterwards, the Jews inside the Eastern Roman Empire, in Egypt, Cyprus and Cyrene – this last province being probably the original trouble hotspot – rose up in what probably was an outburst of religious rebellion against the local pagans, this widespread rebellion being afterwards named the Kitos War. Trajan ignored these offers for peace and continued with his plans. [69], Trajan sent two armies towards Northern Mesopotamia: the first, under Lusius Quietus, recovered Nisibis and Edessa from the rebels, probably having King Abgarus deposed and killed in the process, [69] while a second, under Appius Maximus Santra (probably a governor of Macedonia), was defeated, with Santra being killed. Their heavy cavalry stood ground at the foot of the hill and a fierce clash ensued, but their Prince Pacorus was killed in the fighting. His primary goal was to remain independent of both the major powers in the region, the Roman and the Parthian Empires. [26] As far as territorial conquest involved tax-collecting, [27] especially of the 25% tax levied on all goods entering the Roman Empire, the tetarte, one can say that Trajan's Parthian War had an "economic" motive. Unable to beat back the Roman infantry in an uphill battle, the Parthians were routed. In an attempt to erase the first defeat, Pacorus once again led his cavalry in an uphill attack, supported by horse archers. In 114, Trajan … However, Trajan’s campaign turned for the worse. Mesopotamia was the name of two distinct Roman provinces, the one a short-lived creation of the Roman Emperor Trajan in 116–117 and the other established by Emperor Septimius Severus in ca. Osroes I was a Parthian contender, who ruled the western portion of the Parthian Empire from 109 to 129, with a brief interruption from 116 to 117. In 37, Antony set out with 70,000 men to begin his own Parthian war. His grand scheme for Armenia and Mesopotamia were ultimately "cut short by circumstances created by an incorrect understanding of the strategic realities of eastern conquest and an underestimation of what insurgency can do." It is also interesting to note that despite three captures of the Parthian capital by the Romans, it was the fourth capture, by an internal foe, that ultimately ended the empire. This was the beginning of an "international role" for the Parthian empire, a phase that also entailed contacts with Rome. The following year Osroes … Trajan subdued the rebels in Mesopotamia, installed the Parthian prince Parthamaspates as a client ruler, and withdrew to Syria. Apparently, Hadrian could not allow the continued existence alongside him of a group of independent-minded senatorial generals inherited from his predecessor. The Parthian Empire, also known as the Arsacid Empire, was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran. [28] Also, there was the propaganda value of an Eastern conquest that would emulate, in Roman fashion, those of Alexander the Great. However, in that year revolts erupted in the Eastern Mediterranean, North Africa and northern Mesopotamia, while a major Jewish revolt broke out in Roman territory, severely stretching Roman military resources. Unlike Crassus who ventured into open territory, the hilly terrain of the Taurus negated the Parthian strength in cavalry. In Rome, Ventidius was hailed. On the other hand, Rome’s wars with Parthia had a profound military influence its military, particularly in the strengthening of cavalry in eastern Roman armies. Quelques renseignements inobservés (Jean d'Ephèse, Anthologie Grecque XVI 72)". On his way to Parthia, Trajan conquered Armenia and consolidated it as a province. Once again, Ctesiphon and other important cities such as Nisibis and Seleucia fell to the Romans. Fame, the reason provided by Cassius Dio, is most often put forth, but modern historians have also asserted that the war was actually started for economic reasons. In addition, Trajan declared that Armenia was to become a Roman province. The war was ended the following year after a heavy battle at Nisibis, with the Romans paying a huge sum of war reparations to the Parthians. The reasons for Trajan’s invasion of Parthia have been debated since ancient times. The 160s decade ran from January 1, 160, to December 31, 169. on Amazon.com. Trajan abandoned the policy of not extending the Roman frontiers established by Augustus. Most of the territories were eventually returned to the Parthians after peace was made. Main article: Trajan's Parthian campaign. Some of Musa’s sons moved their residences into Roman realms, where they became a group of exiled Parthian nobility that the Romans would later support as claimants to thrones. However, despite suffering punitive expeditions by the Roman Empire, the Parthian victory at the Battle of Carrhae has remained a lasting memory in the history that symbolizes the limit of Roman power, even though significance of the battle has been exaggerated. In: Maricq: A precise description of events in Judaea at the time being impossible, due to the non-historical character of the Jewish (rabbinic) sources, and the silence of the non-Jewish ones: William David Davies,Louis Finkelstein,Steven T. Katz, eds., Histoire des Juifs, Troisième période, I – Chapitre III – Soulèvement des Judéens sous Trajan et Adrien, R. P. Longden, "Notes on the Parthian Campaigns of Trajan". That battle was the last in the Roman-Parthian wars. Abgar VII died at this time. As both a general and a highly acclaimed commander, he was notably one of the most accomplished Berber statesmen in ancient Roman history. [16], In his Dacian conquests, Trajan had already resorted to Syrian auxiliary units, whose veterans, along with Syrian traders, had an important role in the subsequent colonization of Dacia. [8], In 113, Trajan embarked on his last campaign, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of Armenia, a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero, some fifty years earlier. It was the climax of a four-year period, starting in 213, when Caracalla pursued a lengthy campaign in central and eastern Europe and the Near East. In Mesopotamia, the city of Hatra resisted Trajan’s siege. Pacorus and Labienus defeated the Roman governor of Syria and overran the province. The entire diplomatic history between the two states is too complex. [21], The alternative view is to see the campaign as triggered by the lure of territorial annexation and prestige, [21] the sole motive ascribed by Cassius Dio. [25] In his controversial book on the Ancient economy, Finley considers Trajan's "badly miscalculated and expensive assault on Parthia" to be an example of the many Roman "commercial wars" that had in common the fact of existing only in the books of modern historians. Around 250 B.C.E. Trajan's Parthian war. [32], Finally, there are other modern historians who think that Trajan's original aims were purely military and quite modest: to assure a more defensible Eastern frontier for the Roman Empire, crossing Northern Mesopotamia along the course of the Khabur River in order to offer cover to a Roman Armenia. Trajan holds his position in history as one of the greatest emperors of Rome. Only in 114–118 was Emperor Trajan able to conquer and incorporate it as a short-lived province. He knew that the Parthians had agents that were gathering intelligence from his army, among them, Prince Pharnaeus of Cyrrhestica. Early in the second century, Emperor Trajan, like a latter-day Alexander, had electrified the whole Greek world by a major campaign against the Parthians. [41] It is possible that Quietus' campaign had as its goal the extending of the newer, more defensible Roman border eastwards towards the Caspian Sea and northwards to the foothills of the Caucasus. Since Parthia was essentially the gateway of land trade into the east, cultural contact between Rome and Parthia was nothing short of significant. [15] The rationale behind Trajan's campaign, in this case, would be one of breaking down a system of Far Eastern trade through small Semitic ("Arab") cities under Parthia's control and to put it under Roman control instead. Instead, Trajan placed Parthamastaphes on the throne of Ctesiphon as puppet Trajan’s puppet king. Returning to Armenia, Antony’s army was harassed by the Parthians and met with disease. He owed much all to his successful relation to the emperor Nerva, who took Trajan as adopted son. Unlike Rome’s other rivals - the tribal societies in Europe, Parthia’s realm was vast, its culture was sophisticated, and its wealth was enormous. Armenia revolted from Roman rule and Trajan was forced to concede much of his Armenian conquests. In 113, Trajan embarked on his last campaign, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of Armenia, a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier. [58] The Parthian summer capital of Susa was apparently also occupied by the Romans. The various conflicts, battles, and all-out wars that made up the Roman-Persian … Some may argue that the Roman-Parthian wars were largely reflective of internal turmoil within the two states. This fact reminds us that both Rome and Parthia had overextended and each had little power left to conquer each other. Trajan died in 117 AD, after returning home. For the most part, relations between the two states took the form of “diplomatic maneuvering” rather than open war. This event was commemorated in a coin so as to be presented as the reduction of Parthia to client kingdom status: REX PARTHIS DATUS, "a king is given to the Parthians". In both Crassus’ and Antony’s campaigns, the Armenian king had a large role as a guide, and “betrayer,” as some sources state. [5] In 114, Trajan invaded Armenia, annexed it as a Roman province, and killed Parthamasiris who was placed on the Armenian throne by his relative, the king of Parthia, Osroes I. [57] Another hypothesis is that the rulers of Charax had expansionist designs on Parthian Babylon, giving them a rationale for alliance with Trajan. [72] That done, Trajan retreated north in order to retain what he could of the new provinces of Armenia – where he had already accepted an armistice in exchange for surrendering part of the territory to Sanatruces' son Vologeses [73] and Mesopotamia. Keaveny, Arthur. [7], Trajan's Parthian campaign is considered, in different ways, the climax of "two centuries of political posturing and bitter rivalry." [6] In 115, the Roman emperor overran northern Mesopotamia and annexed it to Rome as well; its conquest was deemed necessary, since otherwise the Armenian salient could be cut off by the Parthians from the south. [83]. Trajan then proceeded into Mesopotamia with eleven Legions, taking the city of Nisibis and Batnae in September 115 AD. Its hold on Mesopotamia had been seriously undermined by repeated Roman conquest of the cities of the region. As the surviving literary accounts of Trajan's Parthian War are fragmentary and scattered, [84] it is difficult to assign them a proper context, something that has led to a long-running controversy about its precise happenings and ultimate aims. Regrettably, due to the scarcity of Parthian sources, the narrative will be told mainly from the Roman perspective. [29] The fact that emissaries from the Kushan Empire might have attended to the commemorative ceremonies for the Dacian War may have kindled in some Greco-Roman intellectuals like Plutarch  – who wrote about only 70,000 Roman soldiers being necessary to a conquest of India – as well as in Trajan's closer associates, speculative dreams about the booty to be obtained by reproducing Macedonian Eastern conquests. Trajan was born in a family from Spain, and as such became the first emperor of non-Italian descent. 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trajan war with parthians

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